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Lake Toba

Lake Toba, the largest lake in South East Asia, and the deepest in the world, was formed 75,000 years ago after an earth splitting volcano eruption. It is the largest and deepest volcanic crater lake in the world. It's 906 meters above sea level with an average depth of 450m. The lake has an island in the middle called Samosir.

According to the Toba catastrophe theory, 70,000 to 75,000 years ago a supervolcanic event at Lake Toba, on Sumatra, reduced the world's human population to 10,000 or even a mere 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution. The theory was proposed in 1998 by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Extract from "Journal of Human Evolution" [1998] 34, 623-651

The last glacial period was preceded by 1000 years of the coldest temperatures of the Late Pleistocene, apparently caused by the eruption of the Mount Toba volcano. The six year long volcanic winter and 1000-year-long instant Ice Age that followed Mount Toba's eruption may have decimated Modern Man's entire population. Genetic evidence suggests that Human population size fell to about 10,000 adults between 50 and 100 thousand years ago. The survivors from this global catastrophy would have found refuge in isolated tropical pockets, mainly in Equatorial Africa. Populations living in Europe and northern China would have been completely eliminated by the reduction of the summer temperatures by as much as 12 degrees centigrade.

Volcanic winter and instant Ice Age may help resolve the central but unstated paradox of the recent African origin of Humankind: if we are all so recently "Out of Africa", why do we not all look more African?

Because the volcanic winter and instant Ice Age would have reduced populations levels low enough for founder effects, genetic drift and local adaptations to produce rapid changes in the surviving populations, causing the peoples of the world to look so different today. In other words, Toba may have caused Modern Races to differentiate abruptly only 70,000 years ago, rather than gradually over one million years.

Volcanic Winter

The Mount Toba eruption is dated to approximately 71,000 years ago. Volcanic ash from Mount Toba can be traced north-west across India, where a widespread terrestrial marker bed exists of primary and reworked airfall ash, in beds that are commonly 1 to 3, and occasionally 6 meters [18 feet] thick.

Tambora, the largest known historic eruption, displaced 20 cubic kilometres of ash. Mount Toba produced 800 cubic kilometres.* It was therefore forty times larger than the largest eruption of the last two centuries and apparently the second largest known explosive eruption over the last 450 million years.





Volcanic Winter, and Differentiation of Modern Humans

Mount Toba's eruption is marked by a 6 year period during which the largest amount of volcanic sulphur was deposited in the past 110,000 years. This dramatic event was followed by 1000 years of the lowest ice core oxygen isotope ratios of the last glacial period. In other words, for 1000 years immediately following the eruption, the earth witnessed temperatures colder than during the Last Glacial Maximum at 18-21,000 years ago.

For the volcanic aerosols to be effectively distributed around the earth, the plume from the volcanic eruptions must reach the stratosphere, a height greater than 17 kilometres. Mount Toba's plume probably reached twice this height. Most solar energy falls at low latitudes between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, so eruptions that happen near the Equator cause much more substantial cooling due to the reflection of solar energy. Toba lies 2 degrees north of the Equator, on the Island Sumatra.

The reduction in atmospheric visibility due to volcanic ash and dust particles is relatively short-lived, about three to six months. Longer-term global climatic cooling is caused by the highly reflective sulphuric acid haze, which stays suspended in the upper atmosphere for several years.

Ice core evidence implicates Mount Toba as the cause of coldest millennium of the late Pleistocene. It shows that this eruption injected more sulphur that remained in the atmosphere fo a longer time [six years] than any other volcanic eruption in the last 110,000 years. This may have caused nearly complete deforestation of southeast Asia, and at the same time to have lowered sea surface temperatures by 3 to 3.5 degrees centigrade for several years.

If Tambora caused the " The year without a summer" in 1816, Mount Toba could have been responsible for six years of relentless volcanic winter, thus causing a massive deforestation, a disastrous famine for all living creatures, and a near extinction of Humankind.

The Volcanic Winter/Weak Garden of Eden model proposed in this paper. Population subdivision due to dispersal within African and other continents during the early Late Pleistocene is followed by bottlenecks caused by volcanic winter, resulting from the eruption of Toba, 71 ka. The bottleneck may have lasted either 1000 years, during the hyper-cold stadial period between Dansgaard-Oeschlger events 19 and 20, or 10ka, during oxygen isotope stage 4. Population bottlenecks and releases are both sychronous. More individuals survived in Africa because tropical refugia were largest there, resulting in greater genetic diversity in Africa.



Samosir Island

Samosir Island is the island in the middle of Lake Toba in northern Sumatra, Indonesia. It is located more or less at the centre of the lake. Samosir Island is believed to be the largest island within an island, and the fifth largest lake island. At 630 sq km, Samosir is just slightly smaller than Singapore, which is 714 sq km.

Samosir Island is believed to have been created 30,000 years ago during a massive eruption. Lake Toba itself was created earlier, 75,000 years ago, in what is believed to be the biggest eruption ever known. During the eruption that created Samosir Island, a peninsula was also formed on the Sumatra mainland, where the small town of Prapat is now located.

Samosir Island is today a major tourist destination in Indonesia, attracting mostly local tourists as well as visitors from neighboring Malaysia and Singapore. Western tourist also come to Samosir Island usually for extended relaxing holidays. Most of the tourist attractions on Samosir Island are connected to its Batak heritage. The main town on the island is Tomok. This is where the tomb of King Sidabutar is located.

The current estimated population of Samosir is 120,000. Including Lake Toba there are six major Batak regions - Toba Batak, Karo Batak, Kakpak/Dairi Batak, Simeulungun Batak, Angkola Batak and Sipirko Batak. Around 1.5 Million Batak live amongst these regions. The Karo Batak and centered around Berastagi.

On the island there are waterfalls and hot volcanic springs (Air Panas). In the dry season most of the waterfalls stop flowing.

Three megalithic sites on Samosir bear witness to the glory - and horror - of Batak history. The three consist of 300-year-old stone seats and benches arrayed in a circle. The first set of ruins was used as a conference area for Batak kings. At the second site, the rajas would sit in judgment of a criminal or enemy prisoner. If the accused were found guilty, the assembly would move to the third set, which features the ghastly addition of a central stone execution block.

There is a regular ferry service, every half hour, between Tuk-Tuk on Samosir Island to Parapat. The ferry runs between 7.30am and 7.30pm during peak tourist seasons. During off peak times the last ferry back from Parapat is 6pm. The cost of the ferry is 7000Rp. Buy your ticket on the boat. At the ferry wharf and on the ferry you will be approached by many of the local young men trying to persuade you to go to the hotel they are affiliated with. These guys are mostly harmless and just trying to make a living guiding tourists. They can be a good resource for information. There is no harm in going and checking their hotel out and if you're not happy with that hotel move on to the ones close by. Tuk-tuk is not that large so the hotels are close. See the list of hotels at the bottom of this page.

How To Get There

The nearest international airport is Polonia Medan (North Sumatra).
Lake Toba is about 4 hours drive by car from Medan City. You can travel by public bus which may take longer to about 6 hours. The usual stop is the town of ” Pematang Siantar ” halfway to Lake Toba for a toilet break.

Mount Kelimutu with its three colors lakes, in a local language called Kelimutu Tiwu Telu is one of the main volcanoes in Flores island.
After eruption in 1886 the mount remained three crater lakes with formerly distinct colors; red, blue and white. The colors, however, have changed continually since the eruption of Mount Iya in Ende in 1969. The changes of its colors make Kelimutu different from others and become one of the attractive places to be seen.

According to the scientists, the changes caused by the geological and chemical processes in the bottom of the lakes. It could be also resulted from refraction of the sunlight, the bacteria populations and the chemicals dissolved in the water.

Kelimutu has been determined as one of the National Parks with 5300 Hectares large, which is known as Kelimutu National Park. It sorrounded by forest with the rare floras and faunas such as palm trees, pine, mountain fig (casuarina yunghuniana), red wood (pterocarpus sp), edelweiss, hog (sus vitatus), javan porcupine (hystrix javanica), the giant rat (papagomys armandvellei), monkey (macaca fascicularis) and gerugiwa (kind of bird). besides natural conservation, this park is also exploited for tourist attraction gathers with parks like Leuser National Park, Kerinci, Komodo, Ujung Kulon and others.

There was a myth about the mountain. Local inhabitants believe that Kelimutu is the last place for their spirits resided and given name as Tiwu Ata Polo (Rek Lake) refers to The Giants, Tiwu Ko’o Fai Nuwa Muri (Blue Lake), to The Orphans, and Tiwu Ata Bupu (White Lake) to The Old Men. The spirits would reside on those three lakes conformed to their social status after passing the gateway called Konde Ratu. For locals, this mountain is holy, and a token of God's blessings, which provides fertility to the sorrounding lands.

A phenomenon of three colored lakes of Kelimutu has become one of Flores; main natural tourist destinations. The spectacular view and dramatic sights on peak of Mount Kelimutu left a deepest impression to all visitors who come and visit it. When you are at the Inspiration Point, you can view the natural panorama and beautiful sunrise. Apart from its cool climate and wonderful panorama, Three Colored Lakes of Kelimutu keeps special features as the only one of tourist attractions on earth to visit, to feel and to remind.

East Nusa Tenggara's natural wonder and one of Indonesia;a most mysterious and gramatic sights that can be found on top of this mountain, some 66 kilometers from Ende, or 83 kilometers from Maumere. It has a unique and spectacular view on its three crater lakes with their respective colours. The colours, however, have changed continually since the eruption of Mount Iya in Ende in 1969.

The surrounding village are good places serving as bases for visits to Kelimutu, particulary those who wish to have a more leisurely pace and enjoy the views along the road between Ende and Maumere, or spend more time in Kelimutu. Those little villages are also known for their excellent weaving-all hand-made, still using natural dyes.

The village of MONI is set out along the length of the road that runs from Ende, northeast to Maumere. It's full of losmen and restaurants, but is still a relaxed place to spend a few days, with great walking in the surrounding hills. Behind the Amina Moe losmen and opposite the market is a rumah adat, where occasional evening dance performances are held (Rp3000) and traders hang around trying to sell ikat. There is no bank, post office or Telkom in Moni.

The summit of Kelimutu (1620m) is a startling lunar landscape, with, to the east, two vast pools separated by a narrow ridge. The waters of one are a currently luminescent green that seems to be heading for bright-yellow, the other was, a few years ago, a vibrant turquoise, and is now deep magenta. A few hundred metres to the west, in a deep depression, is a pure-black lake. The colours of the lakes are apparently due to the levels of certain minerals that dissolve in them. As the waters erode the caldera they lie in, they uncover bands of different compounds and, as the levels of these compounds are in constant flux, so are the colours. In the 1960s, the lakes were red, white and blue, and locals predict that within years they will have returned to these hues.

Every morning at around 4am, an open-sided truck takes travellers from Moni up to Keli Mutu, returning at about 7am (Rp10,000 one way, minimum five people, plus Rp1000 park fee). The best view is from the south crater rim, looking north over the two sister lakes; the trails that run around other rims are extremely dangerous - tourists have disappeared up here. A much nicer alternative to returning with the truck is to walk back down to Moni, which takes about three hours, with rolling grassy meadows flanking extinct volcanic hills, and views all the way to the sea. Practically the whole walk is downhill, but always bring water and wear good boots. A shortcut by the PHPA post cuts off a good 4km from the road route, takes you through some charming local villages and past the waterfall less than 1km from central Moni, which is a great spot for a dip after what can be a very hot walk. A little further down is a hot spring, the perfect place to soak weary feet.

Buses from Ende (1hr 30min; Rp15.000) and Maumere (5hr; Rp20.000) stop here about three times a day, the first one at about 11am and the last at about 3pm; ask at the motel. For such a small isolated village, the cuisine in Moni is impressive.

Lakes like gemstones Gunung Keli Mutu is located in the south of Central Flores, about 40 kilometers northeast of Ende. The volcano consists of three craters, each filled with a colored lake. The lakes got their color because of the mineral deposits, which resolve in the water.

Because of the changing amounts of minerals the color of the lakes changes over time; the last decades the lakes used to be dark-red, light green and light blue. The bald and grey landscape around the lakes makes this phenomenon even more spectacular. It's no wonder that the lakes are sometimes compared with gemstones.

Visit to the lakes The starting point for the climb of the Kelimutu is Moni, a village along the main road from Ende to Maumere. In the 1970's the lakes were only reachable by foot or by horse. You had to start at two in the morning; it's a heavy trip which takes about three to four hours to reach the summit.Only fanatic people do it this way, mainly by horse, which is a bigger torture than walking when you don't have a saddle. Take a guide with you; outside the nights with full moon, chances of getting lost are big.

Nowadays trucks pick up the 'climbers' around 4 in the morning in Moni. The trip takes 45 minutes to the summit. The walk back is a lot more fun after the lakes have been disclosed when the clouds and fog is gone. You ought to be at the viewpoint around 5.30, the place is an ugly concrete slab which can be reached via a concrete stairs. It can be cold there; bring along warm clothes and maybe come warm coffee or tea.


How To Get Here

By plane

Several companies operates flights from (and to) Labuanbajo airport. Indonesia Air Transport (IAT) has flight every day to Denpasar (700,000Rp) and to Ende. Merpati Airlines flies 3 to 4 times a week to Denpasar (620,000Rp). TransNusa has flight daily from Denpasar to Labuan Bajo at ETD 09.30 ETA 10.52 and Labuan Bajo to Denpasar ETD 11.30 ETA 12.52 (971.000Rp) . All flights to Denpasar leaves between 11AM and 3PM. The Labuanbajo airport departure tax is 5000Rp.
[edit] By boat

Ferries to Sumbawa Island to the west (towards Bali) leave daily.

A number of companies organise 4 day sailing trips between Lombok or Bali and Flores for around Rp1,000,000 passengers should be aware that these trips can cross open waters and are on boats with no navigation or safety equipment other than some lifejackets (ie. no radio, flares or life rafts).


By bus

Very crowded public buses leave for Ende and Maumere. For those going on to points in the east of Flores another more expensive option is to hire a car.

Prambanan, named after the village, is the biggest temple complex in Java. There are 224 temples in the complex; three towering temples on the central terrace dominate the complex. Those are Brahma Temple in the North, Visnu Temple in the South and the biggest among the three which lies between Brahma and Visnu is Çiwa Temple which soars up to 47 meters high.

These three ancient masterpieces of Hindu architecture are locally referred to as Prambanan Temple or Rorojonggrang Temple. One of its appeals is the wealth of sculptural detail which is the most famous is on the inner wall of the balustrade, the wonderful Ramayana Epic.

Prambanan attracts many admirers each year from abroad. Situated about 15 km from Yogyakarta, the top of the main shrine is visible from a great distance and raises high above the scattered ruins of the former temples. Prambanan is the best seen shortly after dawn or in the late afternoon. However it is still beautiful at any time.

Ancient Java’s greatest empire, The Mataram, first appeared on the stage of history in 732 AD, the year Sanjaya, a Hindu noble, established territorial rule over the fertile plains between the Progo and Opak rivers. In 750 AD, the Buddhist Syailendra dynasty overthrew Sanjaya, whose family and followers were exiled to the highlands on the periphery of Mataram. A century later, Rakai Pikatan, a descendant of King Sanjaya married into the Syailendras and rose to power. With his ascendancy came the rebirth of Hinduism and a new spate of the temple building, most notably the construction of Prambanan’s Roro Jonggrang complex.

Sanjaya Dynasty, a Hindu noble, established territorial rule over the fertile plains between the Progo and Opak rivers. The dynasty, in keeping with Hindu tradition, set him up as a semi-divine link between heaven and earth. To secure this status for eternity, and to unite the populace in a massive communal effort, he and his successors embarked on a centuries-long program of constructing religious monuments. The earliest Central Javanese Temples date from this period, including the foundations of the great Borobudur.

Rakai Pikatan, a descendant of King Sanjaya, married to the Sailendras and rose to power. With his ascendancy came the rebirth of Hinduism and a new spate of temple building, most notably the construction of Prambanan’s Roro Jonggarng complex. Rakai Pikatan began construction of the temples in 856 AD to commemorate the return to power of Sanjaya Dynasty. However, the complex was abandoned the next century when the Mataram court and most of the population moved to East Java, and the temples themselves collapsed during an earthquake in the 16th century. Half-hearted excavations by the archaeologists in 1880s only facilitated looting. Proper restoration began only in 1930 and continues today.

In 1811, Collin Mackenzie, a surveyor in the service of Thomas Stamford Raffles during Britain’s short lived rule over the Dutch East Indies, came upon these temples by chance. Although Raffles subsequently commissioned a full survey of the ruins, they remained neglected for decades. Dutch residents carried off sculptures for garden ornaments while local villagers used foundation stones for construction material. Proper restoration began only in 1930 and continues today.

The main site of Prambanan contains four temples scattered about a large, landscaped park. The complex is open daily from 6 AM to 6 PM and entry costs a fixed US$10 (US$6 student), try to get there early to beat the heat. Guides can be hired at the ticket office, costs you Rp50.000

Lara Jonggrang Temple, or simply Prambanan Temple, is the largest and most-visited of the temples just to the left of the entrance. While there were 232 temples originally built, most have long since crumbled and the main remaining attractions are the six temples of the central court, richly decorated with carved reliefs. Three of them, known as the Trisakti ("three sacred places"), are particularly important:

Siva Temple, dedicated to Shiva the Destroyer, is the largest of the six, rising to a height of 45 meters. There are fine reliefs of the Ramayana in its forecourt and four chambers with statues. The largest chamber, to the east, contains a statue of Shiva himself, while the south has the sage Agastya, the west his son Ganesh (the elephant-headed) and the north his wife Durga. Durga is also known as Lara Jonggrang ("Slender Virgin"), a legendary beautiful princess turned to stone (see box).

Brahma Temple, to the south, continues the story of the Ramayana and has a statue of Brahma the Creator inside.

Vishnu Temple, to the north, tells the story of Vishnu's avatar Krishna and has a statue of Vishnu the Preserver inside.

Opposite the three large temples are three smaller temples originally dedicated to the vehicles of the gods. Only the statue of Nandi, Shiva's bull, has survived.

North of Lara Jonggrang is a poorly displayed museum laid out in a series of small houses connected by walkways. Explanations are minimal, but entry is free so you might as well take a look.

Prambanan Audio Visual, inside the museum grounds, is the park's term for screenings of a bizarre movie entitled "Cosmic Harmony", which seems to spend as much time lambasting the "industrial world" in general (and Jakarta in particular) as explaining the Prambanan site. Still, it makes for a fairly entertaining half-hour break and Rp 2,000 is not too bad a price to pay for the air-con. The film is available in several languages.

Lumbung Temple and Bubrah Temple, two Buddhist temples, are located several hundred meters further north. They lie in ruins and are fenced off.

Sewu Temple, a large Buddhist temple complex meaning "one thousand temples", is one kilometer north of the entrance gate and contains a large central temple surrounded by a cluster of smaller ones. The sheer size of the recently renovated and intricately decorated central temple is impressive, but the statue niches are all empty. Entrance from the east side only.

There are also several temples and historical sites outside the park.

Kraton Ratu Boko, 3 km south of Prambanan, is a ruined palace or temple of uncertain origin, located on a hilltop 200 meters above the Prambanan plain (which makes for good pictures if and only if you have a good zoom lens). Only some building foundations remain and it's difficult to make any sense of the site. Now incorporated into the Borobudur Park Authority, entry to Ratu Boko is a separately charged US$10, which seems very steep for what you get.

Ho to Get There

By plane

Yogyakarta's airport is just ten kilometers from Prambanan. A taxi direct to the site should cost about Rp 20,000.

By bus

There are regular buses from Yogyakarta's Umbulharjo bus station (30 minutes, Rp 4000), as well as a wide variety of tour agency-operated minibuses shuttling directly to Yogya's backpacker haunts. Local buses to/from Solo are also easy to find (90 minutes, Rp 10,000).

TransJogja, Yogyakarta's newest bus service, also serves a direct route to Prambanan. The bus is air-conditioned and it costs Rp 3000 per person for a ride (as of 2008), regardless of the distance. Ask the attendant at TransJogja's bus stop for further details.

Mount Bromo, situated within the Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, is one of the most famous attractions in east Java. While it is one of many peaks within the Tengger Caldera, it is also its most famous - easily recognizable because entire cap has been blown off by a previous volcanic eruption. Today, smoke is frequently seen billowing out from the top.

Mount Bromo was traditionally visited by the Buddhist Tenggerse, who, on the fourteeth day of the month of Kasada, would gather at the rim of the active crater to present offerings to the Supreme God, Hyang Widi Wasa. According to legend, this practice started as the king Joko Seger and queen Roro Anteng prayed for children, and in return, promised to sacrifice the last child. The Queen had 25 children, but refused at first to sacrifice the last child. When threatened by the gods with fire and brimstone, the queen finally did perform the sacrifice. As the child was being thrown into the crater, the voice of the child was heard ordering an annual ceremony to be performed at the volcano.

A Hindu temple is situated at the foot of the mountain, from which 250 steps lead to the edge of the crater.


When timing any activities in the area, bear in mind that sunset is soon after 5 PM and sunrise is correspondingly early at around 5:30 AM. This means you'll usually need to get up by 3:30 AM or so to get there in time for dawn.

Mount Batok (2440m) is a brown volcanic cone at the north center of the caldera. Unlike the other nearby peaks it is no longer active and actually has some vegetation growing on it, mostly the local cemara tree that somehow manages to survive even on volcanic ash.

Mount Bromo, edges tinged with white sulphur and always bubbling, is the main sight. To reach it on foot, pick the left fork at Cemoro Lawang's solitary crossing, then head down the ramp into the caldera and then across the caldera to the Hindu temple at the foot of the mountain. From the temple a steep path of 250 steps leads to the edge of the crater and a precarious meter-wide ledge from where to gaze into the volcano. Beware of local jeep-hirers, who often try to persuade tourists the journey to the mountain is not walking distance (in order to hire them jeeps, or horses). The walk from the tourist centre to the top of the mountain should take no longer than 1.5 hours by foot, and is about 3km.

Mount Penanjakan (2770m), located just north of the caldera, is a mountaintop viewpoint accessible by paved road from Tosari and hence popular with jeeps and even tour buses. Most of the crowd comes to see the dawn at 5 AM, and you'll likely have the large concrete observation post to yourself if you arrive later in the day.

Viewpoint #2, along the trail from Cemoro Lawang to Mt. Penanjakan, is an excellent way to get a stunning view of the caldera (see pictures above) without the crowds. To reach it, head west from Cemoro Lawang (past Cemero Indah) for 6 km, past farms and fields. The paved road eventually turns into a twisty mountain trail that ends with a flight of stairs on the right, and the viewpoint (with concrete shelter) is at the top. Allow 1.5 hours for the climb up at a steady pace, and bring along a torch if attempting this at night.

From here, you can continue onto Mt. Penanjakan by following the trail upward, after which the trail merges onto the paved road to the viewpoint (total time about 60 minutes one way). If planning to return the same way, mark the spot where the trail emerges onto the road (if you pass a stone lantern on the way down, you've gone too far!), and note that descending on this section can get slippery due to loose sand and rocks.

As of September 2008, the direct way from Cemoro Lawang up to Penanjakan and Viewpoint #2 is severely damaged because of landslides. The path is still passable, but it can be tricky to spot the dangerous parts in the dark — you need a good lamp for every hiker.

Getting There

By plane

The nearest major airport is in Surabaya, three to four hours away by car (and more by bus).

By bus

The nearest larger town is Probolinggo, on the north coast of Java. It's about one hour from Probolinggo to Ngadisari and another half hour all the way to Cemoro Lawang, and it's (just) possible to visit on a day trip, although most visitors prefer to climb overnight and see the sunrise.

To go there, take a 'Damri' shuttle bus from the Juanda International Airport in Surabaya, to go to the Bungurasih bus terminal(terminal Purabaya). Then, take an express Patas air-conditioned bus for a 2-3 hours ride from Surabaya to Probolinggo.

Sometime before the 5th century AD, the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism spread southward from the mainland of southeast Asia to the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and a few others in the archipelago currently called Indonesia. (It is misleading to think of all of Indonesia as either an ancient empire or the province of any particular religion. The vast archipelago of over 13,000 islands became the nation of Indonesia only in 1949 and only a few of its major islands were ever settled or much influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism or Islam). There are no archaeological remains of temples in the Indianized states of Java prior to the end of the seventh century as the early Hindu structures were built of wood and have long since decayed in the moist tropic climate. The first stone temples, Shiva shrines constructed during the eighth century, are found high on the Dieng plateau, the name Dieng meaning 'the place of the gods'. The greatest concentration of Javanese sacred architecture, however, lies on the plain of Kedu, some 42 kilometers north-west of the present city of Yogyakarta. Here stands the beautiful Hindu temple complex of Prambanam and the world famous Hindu/Buddhist temple of Borobudur.

Borobudur, a name deriving from an expression meaning 'Mountain of accumulation of merits of the ten states of Bodhisattva' is commonly thought of as a Buddhist structure, yet its initial construction was planned and conducted by Hindu builders sometime around 775AD. The enormous first and second terraces were completed by a declining Hindu dynasty, construction was then halted for some years, and later, from 790 to 835 AD, the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty continued and finally completed the great stupa. The huge stone mass might have then been permanently abandoned, for it was difficult to adapt to the needs of Buddhism. However, leaving in evidence such an obvious manifestation of Hinduism was probably not deemed politically correct and thus the unfinished Shiva temple was transformed into the world's largest Buddhist stupa. After 832 AD the Hindu dynasty of Sanjaya began to reunify central Java and soon reappropriated the Buddhist monuments built by the Sailendra. Although the Sanjaya were themselves Hindu, they ruled over a Buddhist majority and thus, while some Hindu modifications and ornamentations were done on Borobudur, the stupa remained a place of Buddhist use. During the 10th and 11th centuries there was a transfer of power from central Java to the east, and the great stupa fell into decline. For centuries the site lay forgotten, buried under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. In 1815 Europeans cleared the site, in the early 1900's the Dutch began its restoration, and a US$21 million project begun in 1973 completed the work.

The Borobudur stupa is a massive, symetrical monument, 200 square meters in size, sitting upon a low sculptured hill. The monument represents a Buddhist cosmological model of the universe organized around the axis of mythical Mt. Meru. Starting at the eastern gateway, pilgrims circumambulate the stupa, always in a clockwise direction. Walking through nearly five kilometers of open air corridors while ascending through six square terraces and three circular ones, the pilgrim symbolically spirals upward from the everyday world to the nirvanic state of absolute nothingness. The first six terraces are filled with richly decorated relief panels in which the sculptors have carved a textbook of Buddhist doctrines and a fascinating panorama of 9th century Javanese life. Upon the upper three terraces are 72 small stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha (these statues are usually headless; relic hunters stole many of the heads, others are in museums). Crowning the entire structure is a great central stupa. Representing Nirvana, it is empty.


How to Get There

Borobudur is about one hour from Jogja, or, two hours from Semarang. The drive leads through small towns and rice fields. Borobudur lies at the edge of a tiny village, Borobudur Village, where the inhabitants are mainly farmers and souvenir vendors. A car with driver can be hired in Yogyakarta. another gate is Solo, that is 2 hour drive though lovely drive between Merbabu and Merapi volcanoes. This route is only for small car or van.

You can also take public transport. Go by bus or minibus from Joga Bus terminal. There direct Bus (Micro Bus) serves daily every 10 minutes from Jogja to Borobudur. The very well known Bus is named, CEMARA TUNGGAL, cost Rp, 12.000,- (one way). When you take this micro bus, please get down at MENDUT temple. Afterwards, you can walk or take horse cart from to PAWON TEMPLE. From Pawon temple is only 300 meters to BOROBUDUR TEMPLE.

Early morning is the best time to visit Borobudur. The gate opens at 6 am. The view of the surrounding volcanoes and the Bukit Menoreh range to the south is clearest at dawn, although morning mists sometimes obscure the view until 8 am. Visitors walk 500 meters to the base of the hill then climb a series of steps to reach the temple foot. For sun rise, you may take private car or stay a night at hotels in Borobudur.